理论教育 美欧WTO裁决执行比较

美欧WTO裁决执行比较

时间:2023-05-27 理论教育 版权反馈
【摘要】:一方面,在多边贸易体制中处于“霸权”地位的事实导致国际声誉对美国和欧盟执行WTO裁决的影响并不大。其他WTO成员方在美国和欧盟不执行、部分执行或拖延执行WTO裁决时仍然选择与它们在WTO框架下进行磋商与合作。在某些特定案件中,欧盟在推动美国执行WTO裁决时也会表现出一定的灵活性。

美欧WTO裁决执行比较

(一)美国和欧盟在执行WTO裁决方面有很大的相似性

第一,美国和欧盟基本按照DSU规定的规则和程序执行WTO裁决,其主要原因包括:迫于各方舆论压力,担心受到单边主义的指责;执行裁决应该有章可循,美国和欧盟并不想陷入贸易战;更重要的是,WTO裁决执行机制是一种成员方抗衡国内贸易保护主义压力的有效手段。

第二,美国和欧盟并不十分重视因不执行WTO裁决对其国家声誉可能造成的不利影响。一方面,在多边贸易体制中处于“霸权”地位的事实导致国际声誉对美国和欧盟执行WTO裁决的影响并不大。其他WTO成员方在美国和欧盟不执行、部分执行或拖延执行WTO裁决时仍然选择与它们在WTO框架下进行磋商与合作。另一方面,美国和欧盟对多边贸易体制的兴趣正在逐渐减弱,这使得美国和欧盟并不像以前一样愿意成为遵守WTO规则的“模范”。在乌拉圭回合谈判中基本建立的有关货物贸易、服务贸易知识产权保护的多边贸易规则框架的基础上,美国和欧盟目前并无进一步推动多边国际贸易合作的动力,对于多哈回合谈判已经不抱太多期望,而是在TPP、TTIP〔149〕、TISA〔150〕、ACTA等双边或多边组织中推动国际合作。巴西和中国公民担任WTO总干事、副总干事〔151〕会加速美国和欧盟偏离多边贸易主义、走向双边或区域贸易主义的态势〔152〕。由此可见,美国和欧盟在WTO多边框架下已很难获得更多期待利益,因此希望参与或推动双边或区域的国际经贸规则制定,利用自身在国际经贸体系中的主导地位促使上述规则多边化。

第三,美国和欧盟执行WTO裁决受到国内制度因素的影响巨大,具体表现在:(1)国内机构的权限可能妨碍WTO裁决的执行。例如,观察美国执行WTO裁决的实践可以发现,如果一项WTO不利裁决的执行将涉及美国国会立法时,美国国会可能反对修改立法,除非美国受到了授权报复或面临对抗行为。(2)授权报复或报复威胁可以通过国内政治的互动对裁决执行产生影响。(3)通过国内政治的互动,WTO裁决本身的合法性与有效性可能影响WTO裁决的执行过程。

总之,美国和欧盟在国际经贸体系中拥有相同的霸权地位、它们在国际经贸体系中的利益诉求非常类似以及国内民主制度对于美国和欧盟执行WTO裁决的影响重大等因素导致它们在执行WTO裁决方面表现出很多的相似性。

(二)美国和欧盟在促使对方执行WTO裁决时有时体现出一定的灵活性,有时又表现得非常强硬

如前所述,在欧共体“香蕉案”和“荷尔蒙案”中,美国作为胜诉方采取了强硬态度,为了迫使欧共体执行WTO裁决,不惜采取授权报复措施。在美国“外国销售公司案”和“伯德修正案”中,欧共体也同样采取了强硬立场,以贸易报复威胁持续对美施压。在美国“1916年反倾销法案”裁决执行过程中,欧共体通过“对抗立法”的方式成功迫使美国国会撤销了《1916年反倾销法》。

在某些特定案件中,欧盟在推动美国执行WTO裁决时也会表现出一定的灵活性。如在美国“版权法第110(5)节案”的裁决执行过程中,欧共体接受美国每年支付的120多万美元的补偿作为对方暂时不执行裁决的替代措施。但是美国既没有修改涉案国会立法,也没有如约支付补偿。欧共体只是要求将该案一直列入DSB议程,并没有想办法迫使美国执行该裁决。在“欧共体诉美国《1998年综合拨款法》第211节案”的裁决执行过程中,美国始终没有修改相关立法,欧共体也没有申请DSB授权报复。究其原因,主要是因为这两部法律的修改实在是涉及太多复杂的政治经济因素,欧盟考虑到美国执行WTO裁决确实存在严重困难。

总之,美国和欧盟在维护重大贸易利益时都表现出非常强硬的立场,要求对方执行WTO裁决,根本原因在于美国和欧盟国内利益集团的强大诉求和其巨大的国内政治经济利益影响,如果裁决执行只是涉及较小的贸易利益、败诉方执行确有困难时,美国和欧盟也会表现出一定的灵活性。

综上所述,几乎在所有案件的裁决执行过程中,美国和欧盟都明确表示愿意执行WTO裁决,并尝试采取各种措施试图执行裁决、解决争端,“基本执行或有效执行”了绝大多数WTO裁决、“当事方共同接受执行”和“当事方同意结束争端”是执行WTO裁决的三种主要表现形式,在此过程中,美国和欧盟都积极推进贸易自由主义,积极执行WTO的不利裁决,但只要是遇到涉及敏感或核心议题的案件裁决执行时,美国和欧盟都会适用拖延执行或者变相不执行的策略,最大限度地维护原有的贸易制度或措施。

【注释】

〔1〕曹建明,贺小勇.世界贸易组织法.北京:法律出版社,2011:85.

〔2〕除非另有说明,案件数量以WTO争端解决编号计算。

〔3〕John H.Jackson.Dispute Settlement and the WTO:Background Note for Conference on Developing Countries and the New Round Multilateral of Trade Negotiations,London:Harvard University,1999:56.

〔4〕Congressional Digest,Nov.,1994,pp.270-287.

〔5〕GAO's Report Page 9.

〔6〕USTR's Report Page 10.

〔7〕张乃根.论WTO争端解决机制的若干国际法问题.法律适用.2001(10):15.

〔8〕Joost Pauwelyn.Enforcement and Countermeasures in the WTO:Rules are Rules—Toward a More Collective Approach.The American Journal of International Law,2000,24:335.

〔9〕国会委员会是国会的分支机构,目前包括参议院的16个常设委员会和众议院的22个常设委员会以及5个联合委员会。

〔10〕该委员会是根据美国《1974年贸易法》建立起来的外部贸易政策顾问机构,经多次扩充后形成了一套完整的贸易政策顾问系统。

〔11〕Decision by the Arbitrators,US-Tax Treatment for“Foreign Sales”Corporations (Article 22.6-US),WT/DS108/ARB,30 August 2002,para.5.61.

〔12〕Decision by the Arbitrators,US-Tax Treatment for“Foreign Sales”Corporations(Article 22.6-US),WT/DS108/ARB,30 August 2002,para.6.36.

〔13〕Decision by the Arbitrators,US-Tax Treatment for“Foreign Sales”Corporations(Article 22.6-US),WT/DS108/ARB,30 August 2002,paras.5.62.

〔14〕Decision by the Arbitrators,US-Tax Treatment for“Foreign Sales”Corporations(Article 22.6-US),WT/DS108/ARB,30 August 2002,paras.5.61.

〔15〕Decision by the Arbitrators,US-Tax Treatment for“Foreign Sales”Corporations(Article 22.6-US),WT/DS108/ARB,30 August 2002,paras.8.1.

〔16〕Decision by the Arbitrators,US-Tax Treatment for“Foreign Sales”Corporations(Article 22.6-US),WT/DS108/ARB,30 August 2002,paras.5.57.

〔17〕Decision by the Arbitrators,US-Tax Treatment for“Foreign Sales”Corporations(Article 22.6-US),WT/DS108/ARB,30 August 2002,paras.5.60.

〔18〕Decision by the Arbitrators,US-Tax Treatment for“Foreign Sales”Corporations(Article 22.6-US),WT/DS108/ARB,30 August 2002,paras.5.62.

〔19〕Minutes of the DSB Meeting,WT/DSB/M/149,8 July,2003.

〔20〕Chad P.Bown.The WTO Secretariat and the role of economics in Panels and arbitrations.In Chad P.Bown,Joost Pauwelyn(eds.).The Law,Economics and Politics of Retaliation in WTO Dispute Settlement.New York:Cambridge University Press,2010:465.

〔21〕Robert Z.Lawrence.Crimes and Punishments?Retaliation under the WTO.Brookings Institution Press,2003:43.

〔22〕WT/DS/136/15,WT/DS/162/18,Jan.7,2002.

〔23〕C.P.Bown.Trade Remedies and World Trade Organization Dispute Settlement:Why Are So Few Challenged?.Journal of Legal Studies,2005,46:521.

〔24〕Decision by the Arbitrators,US-Anti-Dumping Act of 1916(Article 22.6-US),WT/DS136/ARB,24 February 2004,paras.8.2.

〔25〕See http://www.wto.org/(2019 4 30).

〔26〕广瀬孝.关于美国1916年AD法的损害恢复法解释.国际商业法律事务,2017(3):35.

〔27〕小林大和.围绕两国间贸易争端,日本通商政策的去向——由“美国1916年法的损害恢复法”生效所想到的.见经济产业研究所,http://www.rieti.go.jp/cn/columns/a01_0154.html(2019 3 30).

〔28〕WT/DS/160/R,June.15,2000.

〔29〕WT/DS160/ARB25/1,Nov.9,2001.

〔30〕WTO Doc.,WT/DS160/23,Notification of a Mutually Satisfactory Temporary Arrangement,26 June 2003.

〔31〕WT/DS160/19,Jan.7,2002.

〔32〕贝尔纳·欧卡纳.世界贸易组织争端解决机制的救济-由欧共体香蕉案和牛肉案引发的思考.蔡敏丽译:.财经法学译丛,2005(1):28.

〔33〕李晓玲.WTO补偿机制之案例研究-《美国版权法》第110(5)节案.孙婉钟,左海聪:WTO法与中国论丛(2012)年卷.北京:知识产权出版社,2012:189.

〔34〕2010 U.S.-Brazil Temporary Agreement on the Cotton Dispute,http://www.brazilcouncil.org/sites/default/files/One-Pageron Agreement-June.21,2011(Website)pdf(2019 3 30).

〔35〕吕成功.美国对世界的博弈-伯德修正案之争.WTO经济导刊.2004(12):98.

〔36〕贺小勇.国际贸易争端解决与中国对策研究-以WTO为视角.北京:法律出版社,2006:177.

〔37〕Decision by the Arbitrators,US-Continued Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act of 2000(Article 22.6-US),WT/DS217/ARB/EEC,31 August 2004,para.5.2.

〔38〕Communication from the European Union,United States-Continued Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act of 2000,WT/DS217/47,29 April 2005.

〔39〕WT/DS217/49,WT/DS217/51,WT/DS217/53,WT/DS217/55.WT/DS217/49,WT/DS217/51,WT/DS217/53,WT/DS217/55.

〔40〕Communication from Japan,United States-Continued Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act of 2000,WT/DS217/48,1 September 2005.

〔41〕WT/DS217/50,WT/DS217/52.

〔42〕Communication from Japan,United States-Continued Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act of 2000,WT/DS217/54,29 August 2008.

〔43〕Communication from Japan,United States-Continued Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act of 2000,WT/DS217/56,1 September 2009.

〔44〕Communication from Canada,United States-Continued Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act of 2000,WT/DS217/58,1 May 2005.

〔45〕Communication from Mexico,United States-Continued Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act of 2000,WT/DS217/60,18 August 2005.

〔46〕Communication from Mexico,United States-Continued Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act of 2000,WT/DS217/60,30 April 2006.

〔47〕Communication from the European Union,United States-Continued Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act of 2000,WT/DS217/61,10 May 2012.

〔48〕Communication from Japan,United States-Continued Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act of 2000,WT/DS217/62,27 August 2012.

〔49〕Rosemary A.Ford.The Beef Hormone Dispute and Carousel Sanctions:A Roundabout Way of Forcing Compliance with World Trade Organization Decisions.Brooklyn Journal International Law,2002,(14)7:556.

〔50〕Robert E.Hudec.Broadening the Scope of Remedies in the WTO Dispute Settlement.In:Friedl Weiss,Jochem Wiers(eds.).Improving WTO Dispute Settlement Procedures:Issues and Lessons from the Practice of Other International Courts and Tribunals,London:Cameron May International Law&Policy,2000:390.

〔51〕Financial Times,August 26,2000,p.5.

〔52〕Rosemary A.Ford.The Beef Hormone Dispute and Carousel Sanctions:A Roundabout Way of Forcing Compliance with World Trade Organization Decisions,Brooklyn Journal International Law,2002,19:569.

〔53〕Decision by the Arbitrators,US-Subsidies on Upland Cotton(Article 22.6-US),WT/DS267/ARB,03/03/2005,para.1.2-1.3.

〔54〕See US Department of Agriculture,USDA Announces Changes to Export Credit Guarantee Programs to Comply with WTO Findings,30 June 2005,http://www.fas.usda.gov/scriptsw/PressRelease/pressrel_dout.asp?Pr Num=0092-05,visited on 1 March 2015(2019 3 30).

〔55〕See WT/DS276/ARB/1.

〔56〕参见WT/DS276/ARB/1,附件4.

〔57〕See WT/DS276/ARB/1.

〔58〕Decision by the Arbitrators,US-Subsidies on Upland Cotton(Article 22.6-US),WT/DS267/ARB/2,31/08/2009,para.1.23.

〔59〕Communication from Brazil,United States-Subsidies on Upland Cotton,WT/DS267/43,12/03/2010.

〔60〕International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development,“US,Brazil Agree to Negotiate End to Cotton Dispute”.

〔61〕SEWELL CHAN US and Brazil Reach Agreement on Cotton Dispute,The New York Times,April 6,2010.

〔62〕See http://www.ustr.gov/about-us/press-office/press-releases/2010/april/us-brazil-agree-uponpath-toward-negotiated-solution(2019-3-28).

〔63〕Communication from Brazil,United States-Subsidies on Upland Cotton,WT/DS267/44,05/05/2010.

〔64〕Communication from Brazil,United States-Subsidies on Upland Cotton,WT/DS267/45,31/08/2010.

〔65〕该法案未能在2012年年底前获得通过,美国国会决定延长《2008年农业法》一年的有效期。2008年农业法将于2013年9月30日失效。

〔66〕Randy Schnepf.“Brazil's WTO Case against the U.S.Cotton Program”,CRS Report for Congress,June 30,2010,p.28.

〔67〕USTR Statement on Awards in Brazil Cotton Dispute,United States Trade Representative,31 August 2009.

〔68〕刘瑛.从“美国赌博和博彩服务案”看WTO框架下的知识产权跨协定报复授权.法学,2009(11):105.

〔69〕傅星国.WTO争端裁决的执行机制.上海:人民出版社,2011:368.

〔70〕Decision by the Arbitrators,US-Subsidies on Upland Cotton(Article 22.6-US),WT/DS285/ARB,21/12/2007,para.7.23.

〔71〕韩立余.“美国博彩案”对中国执行WTO裁决的启示.张乃根:WTO争端解决的“中国年(2009)”.上海:上海人民出版社,2010:77.(www.daowen.com)

〔72〕刘瑛.从“美国赌博和博彩服务案”看WTO框架下的知识产权跨协定报复授权.法学,2009(11):108.

〔73〕据统计,安提瓜与美国的贸易额每年约1.8亿美元,占美国出口总额不足0.02%。

〔74〕薛狄,那力.在知识产权领域进行跨协定报复:发展中国家可用的武器.河北法学,2010(28):77.

〔75〕See WTO Website,Current status of disputes.http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/dispu_current_status_e.htm(2019-4-30).

〔76〕WTO Website,European Union and a Member State-Seizure of Generic Drugs in Transit-Request for Consultations by India,WT/DS408/1(2019-4-30).

〔77〕See Government of India Ministry of Commerce and Industry,Indian EU Reach an Understanding on Issue of Seizure of Indian Generic Drugs in Transit.http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=73554(2019-4-30).

〔78〕See WTO Website,Dispute Settlement System Training Module:Chapter 6,The process-Stages in a typical WTO dispute settlement case,6.3 The panel stage,Page 1(2019-4-30).

〔79〕Appellate Body and/or panel reports adopted.Case resolved without need for respondent to take further action.

〔80〕Appellate Body and/or panel finds the disputed trade measure(s)to be inconsistent with WTO law.Recommendation to bring the measure(s)into conformity with WTO law is adopted by the DSB.

〔81〕The respondent has notified that it has implemented the DSB recommendation to bring the disputed measure into conformity with WTO law.No compliance proceeding initiated.

〔82〕Parties have notified an agreement on implementation.

〔83〕If the parties disagree whether the respondent has implemented the recommendations and rulings,either party can request a“compliance”panel under Article 21.5 of the DSU.

〔84〕Appellate Body and/or panel report under Article21.5 adopted,no finding of noncompliance or other inconsistency.

〔85〕Appellate Body and/or panel report under Article21.5 adopted,with findings that the respondent has not complied with the rulings.

〔86〕案件名称参见世界贸易组织法律事务部编.WTO争端解决案件概要:1995—2007.朱榄叶译.北京:法律出版社,2009.

〔87〕If compliance proceedings determine that the disputed measure has not been brought into conformity with WTO law,the complaint may request permission to impose retaliation measures(“suspend concessions or other obligations”)against the respondent.Furthermore,if the respondent disagrees on the level(value)or sector of retaliation,arbitration may be requested under article 22.6 or 22.7 of the DSU.This category includes both(1)disputes currently undergoing art.22.6 arbitration,and(2)disputes where a request to retaliate has been made,but arbitration has not yet started.

〔88〕Appellate Body/compliance panel find DSB recommendations have not been fully implemented;authorization for complaint to suspend concession or other obligations granted.

〔89〕Panel proceedings suspended under Article 12.12 of the DSU,and not resumed after 12 months.

〔90〕Request withdrawn,measure terminated,or mutually agreed solution under Article3.6 of the DSU notified prior to adoption of Appellate Body and/or panel reports.

〔91〕曹建明,贺小勇.世界贸易组织法.北京:法律出版社,2011:71.

〔92〕WTO Website,European Communities and Certain Member States-Measures Affecting Trade in Large Civil Aircraft-Communication from the European Union,WT/DS316/17(2019-3-30).

〔93〕边永民.欧盟转基因生物安全法评析.河北法学,2007(5):163.张忠民.转基因食品安全国际规范的冲突与协调——从“欧美转基因食品案”展开的思考.宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版),2008(4):43.

〔94〕杨卫东,李寿平.欧盟及其成员国对民用飞机产业的补贴及其启示.北京理工大学学报(社会科学版),2011(2):93.

〔95〕例如美国诉欧共体生物产品的批准和销售案(DS291)。

〔96〕美国诉欧盟影响民用大飞机贸易措施案、(DS316)美国等诉欧盟香蕉案(DS27)。

〔97〕曹建明,贺小勇.世界贸易组织法.北京:法律出版社,2011:71.

〔98〕Sherzod Shadikhodjaev.Retaliation in the WTO Dispute Settlement System.Netherlands:Kluwer Law and Business,2009:120.

〔99〕Andrew S.Bishop.The Second Legal Revolution in International Trade Law:Ecuador Goes Ape in Banana Trade War With European Union.International Legal Perspectives,2001:167.

〔100〕据表可见,欧共体的经济实力是厄瓜多尔的400倍。

〔101〕See Decision by the Arbitrators,EC-Bananas(Ecuador)(Article 22.6-EC),WT/DS27/ARB/ECU,24/05/2000,para.126.

〔102〕Norio Komuro.The EC Banana Regime and Judicial Control,Journal of World Trade,2000,71:54.

〔103〕Decision by the Arbitrators,EC-Bananas(Ecuador)(Article 22.6-EC),WT/DS27/ARB/ECU,24/05/2000,para.170.

〔104〕Decision by the Arbitrators,EC-Bananas(Ecuador)(Article 22.6-EC),WT/DS27/ARB/ECU,24/05/2000,para.171.

〔105〕Decision by the Arbitrators,EC-Bananas(Ecuador)(Article 22.6-EC),WT/DS27/ARB/ECU,09/04/1999,para.74.

〔106〕Decision by the Arbitrators,EC-Banana(Ecuador)(Article 22.6-EC),WT/DS27/ARB/ECU,24/05/2000,para.96.

〔107〕Gregory Shaffer,Daniel Ganin.Extrapolating Purpose from Practice:Rebalancing or Inducing Compliance,In Chad P.Bown,Joost Pauwelyn(eds.).The Law,Economics and Politics of Retaliation in WTO Dispute Settlement,New York:Cambridge University Press,2010:84.

〔108〕Marco Bronckers,Naboth van den Broek.Financial Compensation in the WTO Improving the Remedies of WTO Dispute Settlement.Journal of International Economic Law,2005,(65)7:105.

〔109〕Decision by the Arbitrators,EC-Bananas(Ecuador)(Article 22.6-EC),WT/DS27/ARB/ECU,24/05/2000,para.126.

〔110〕Decision by the Arbitrators,EC-Hormones(United States)(Article 22.6-EC),WT/DS26/ARB,12 July 1999,para.83.

〔111〕Decision by the Arbitrators,EC-Hormones(United States)(Article 22.6-EC),WT/DS48/ARB,12 July 1999,para.72.

〔112〕官松.论WTO争端解决机制下的报复制度.北京:法律出版社,2013:199.

〔113〕Decision by the Arbitrators,EC-Hormones(United States)(Article 22.6-EC),WT/DS26/ARB,12 July 1999,paras.22-23.

〔114〕USTR Announces Procedures for Modifying Measures in EC Beef and Banana Cases,Press Release 00-41,May 26,2000.

〔115〕“Carousel”List Still Held Up,Trade Reports International Group,Washington Trade Daily,August 2,2000.

〔116〕Lothar Ehring.The European Community's Experience and Practice in Suspending WTO Obligation,In Chad P.Bown,Joost Pauwelyn(eds.).The Law,Economics and Politics of Retaliation in WTO Dispute Settlement,New York:Cambridge University Press,2010:91.

〔117〕Renee Johnson.“The U.S.-EU Beef Hormone Dispute”,CRS Report for Congress,November 6,2012,pp.11-16.

〔118〕See Federal Register/Vol.76,No.103/Friday,May 27,2011/Notices.

〔119〕Communication from Canada,EC-Hormones,WT/DS48/26,22 March 2011.

〔120〕Lenore Sek.Trade Retaliation:The“Carousel”Approach,CRS Report for Congress,order code RS20715,22 September 1999.

〔121〕Trade and Development Act 2000,pub.L.106-200,114 Stat.251.

〔122〕European Communities-Definitive Anti-Dumping Measures on Certain Iron or Steel Fasteners from China-Report of the Panel,WT/DS397/R,3 December 2010,pp.7.48.

〔123〕漆彤,杨琼.中国诉欧盟紧固件案“单独税率”争议评析.武大国际法评论,2011,(2):359.

〔124〕徐昕.中欧紧固件案执行争端获胜助推中国市场经济地位认可进程,WTO经济导刊.2016(2):50.

〔125〕Regulation(EU)No 765/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2012 amending Council Regulation(EC)No 1225/2009 on protection against dumped imports from countries not members of the European Community,OJ L/2012/237/1,Article 1.

〔126〕“Suppliers which are legally distinct from other suppliers or which are legally distinct from the State may nevertheless be considered as a single entity for the purpose of specifying the duty.For the application of this sub-paragraph,account may be taken of factors such as the existence of structural or corporate links between the suppliers and the State or between suppliers,control or material influence by the State in respect of pricing and output,or the economic structure of the supplying country.”

〔127〕具体企业名单参见中国贸易救济信息网发布.欧盟对华钢铁制紧固件作出反倾销终裁[EB/OL].http://www.ccpitnb.org/index.php/default/nbfetview/id/67561/sub/(2019 3 30).

〔128〕Article 1(2)of Regulation(EC)No 91/2009.

〔129〕OJ L 275,4.10.2012,p.21.

〔130〕刘振环.美国贸易政策研究.北京:法律出版社,2010:69.

〔131〕李晓郛.以贸易救济为视角看美国对DSB裁决的执行.上海海关学院学报,2013,(1):108.

〔132〕19 U.S.C.3512(b)(2)(A).

〔133〕国会委员会是国会的分支机构,目前包括参议院的16个常设委员会和众议院的22个常设委员会以及5个联合委员会。

〔134〕Jeanne J.Grimmett:WTO Dispute Settlement:Status of U.S.Compliance in Pending Cases,CRS Report for Congress,April 23,2012.

〔135〕467 U.S.837(1984).

〔136〕6 U.S.(2 Cranch)64,118(1804).

〔137〕SNR Roulements v.United States,341 F.Supp.2d 1334,1341(Ct.Int'l Trade 2004).

〔138〕454 F.3d 1361,1366(Fed.Cir.2006).

〔139〕WTO.Dispute settlement[EB/OL].http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds108_e.Htm(2019-3-30).

〔140〕孙立文.WTO贸易救济争端解决裁决执行问题分析.国际商务研究,2010,(3):18.

〔141〕Council Regulation(EC)No.384/96 of 22 December 1995 on protection against dumped imports from coun-tries not members of the European Community[Repealed by Council Regulation(EC)No.1225/2009 of 30 November 2009 on protection against dumped imports from countries not members of the European Community];Council Regulation(EC)No.1973/2002 of 5 November 2002 amending Regulation(EC)No.2026/97 on the protection against subsidised imports from countries not members of the European Community.

〔142〕The European Commission-Pre Lex Website,COM(2012)41,2012/0019/COD,Proposal for a REGULATION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL amending Council Regulation(EC)No.1225/2009 of 30 November 2009 on protection against dumped imports from countries not members of the European Community.

〔143〕EU.[EB/OL].http://ec.europa.eu/prelex/detail_dossier_real.cfm?CL=en&DosID=201322(2019-3-30).

〔144〕Alberto Alemanno.Recent Development:Judicial Enforcement of the WTO Hormones Ruling Within the European Community:Toward EC Liability for the Non-Implementation of WTO Dispute Settlement Decisions?.Harvard International Law Journal,2004,45(1):560.

〔145〕李晓郛.私人通过援引DSB裁决在ECJ获得赔偿的可能性分析—以司法判例为视角.国际经济法学刊,2012,(3):40.

〔146〕Case C-53/96,Hemes,1998E.C.R.I-3603.

〔147〕吕晓杰.WTO规则在欧盟法律体系中效力的新发展—统一解释原则的确定与适用.现代法学,2008,(1):125.

〔148〕美国和欧盟近来结束将近20年的香蕉贸易争端和荷尔蒙牛肉贸易争端,为美国和欧盟启动TTIP谈判扫清了一大障碍

〔149〕就服务投资而言,如果中美达成的BIT同意开放某些服务部门的投资,美国就没有再回到多边贸易体制下就商业存在模式谈判这些服务的市场准入国民待遇问题的动力。

〔150〕2013年9月1日,巴西人罗伯托·阿泽维多正式出任WTO总干事。副总干事共有4名,中国、美国、德国和尼日利亚各占1名。

〔151〕2013年12月巴厘岛部长级会议达成了包括《贸易便利化协定》在内的“巴厘岛一揽子协议”,虽然一定程度上有利于WTO各成员重回多哈回合谈判桌,但无法阻挡美国和欧盟的双边或区域主义趋势。

〔152〕WTO.Current status of disputes[EB/OL].http://www.Wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/dispu_current_status_e.htm(2019 4 30).

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