理论教育 制造业对美国经济的重要性

制造业对美国经济的重要性

时间:2023-05-26 理论教育 版权反馈
【摘要】:制造业仍然是美国经济的主要部门:官方统计数据表明,制造业约占美国GDP的12.1%,88为美国17.3万亿美元的经济体量贡献了2.09万亿美元,89在美国1.5亿总就业人口中,制造业就业人口有1 230万90。该报告的核心发现是,目前对制造业占GDP份额的估计不仅是片面的,而且是严重低估的;当对制造进行全面考察时,制造业占美国经济的三分之一左右,而不是十分之一。

制造业对美国经济的重要性

制造业仍然是美国经济的主要部门:官方统计数据表明,制造业约占美国GDP的12.1%,88为美国17.3万亿美元的经济体量贡献了2.09万亿美元,89在美国1.5亿总就业人口中,制造业就业人口有1 230万90。制造业工人的报酬远高于服务业工人,比非制造业高出20%。91发展经济学家告诉我们,美国历史上60%或以上的经济增长来自技术和相关创新92作为创新的主要实施阶段,制造是创新系统的关键要素——尽管美国不这样认为。工业企业聘用了美国64%的科学家和工程师,完成了70%的产业研发。93因此,美国的制造实力与创新体系的优势直接相关。

了解生产企业重要性的另一种方法是将它们置于整个行业背景中。布鲁金斯学会的一项研究显示了美国先进工业的重要性:美国先进工业进行了大量研发,并雇用了份额远超比例的科学技术工程数学(STEM)人员。94这些公司分属于50个部门,占全国私营部门89%的研发,并且产生了80%的国家专利,因此成为提高生产率的各种技术进步的主要来源。95它们还创造了全国60%的出口,并支付了高于其他部门的工资。在这50个部门中,70%由制造业企业组成。96

尽管制造业就业下降,制造业仍然是经济中主要的劳动力就业来源。官方统计测量的主要是生产阶段的工人,超过8%。这个官方数据是在制造层面而不是在全公司层面收集的。我们是否应该将制造视角限制在生产的那个时段?为什么衡量制造业时只用工厂的数据?以上问题为看待制造业提供了另外一个视角。

相反,如果把制造业视为沙漏,我们可以更好地进行观察(见图3-1)。在中心,沙漏的窄颈是生产时段。但是,不能简单地把生产时段视作全部的制造业就业。灌入生产时段的部分是一个更大的就业基数,其中包括从事资源工作的人员、大量供应商和零部件制造商雇用的人员以及创新人员。工业公司所雇用的科学家和工程师占有了很大的比例。从生产时段流出之后是另一个工作岗位群,包括那些在分销系统、零售和销售以及产品生命周期中工作的人员。沙漏顶部和底部的就业远远大于生产时段的就业。

图3-1 制造业就业沙漏概念示意

当这些复杂的价值链被打乱时,很难将它们重新组合起来。这就是为什么在美国历史上,一个经济部门一旦失去,就很难复活——它不会再回来。在失去一个经济部门的同时,也失去了在该领域进行创新的潜力。我们没有收集有关美国工业部门价值链影响的数据;我们所掌握的最接近数据是就业乘数数据,它并不能说明全貌。通过沙漏及其内部的价值链了解制造业,可能为目前经济中面临的困境提供部分解释,包括失业、高质量就业创造,以及中位收入下降。

然而,制造业生产力与创新联盟基金会的一项新的研究开发了新的数据视角,让我们更多地看到了这个价值链的全貌。这项研究提供了一些关键的新发现。如下所示:97

●制成品价值链加上为其他行业供应链的制造约占美国GDP和就业人数的三分之一。

●美国国内制造业增加值乘数为3.6,远高于传统计算。98用于最终需求的制成品的国内制造业增加值每增加1美元,经济中其他地方的增加值就会增加3.6美元。

●制造业中为最终需求生产产品的每一个全职工作,会在非制造业中创造3.4个全职同等岗位;这个就业乘数远远高于其他任何部门。

●用于最终需求的制成品的增加值的54%都来自下游销售链,上游供应链占据了剩余46%。

●国内制造仅占最终需求制成品价值链的22%。非制造业增加值占53%,进口供应占其余的25%。

●相对于其他行业,制造业实现增加值的效率很高。制造业实现100万美元的增加值大约需要5.8个就业岗位,交通和服务业均需要7.7个就业岗位,零售贸易需要16.9个就业岗位。

该报告的核心发现是,目前对制造业占GDP份额的估计不仅是片面的,而且是严重低估的;当对制造进行全面考察时,制造业占美国经济的三分之一左右,而不是十分之一。99

这种分析方法当然存在一些问题:如果制造是在国外进行的,如上文分析以及制造业生产力与创新联盟研究认识到的,部分下游系统(沙漏的下半部分)被恢复;有些下游的工作岗位来自制造业进口。消费者也可以将用于制成品上的一些支出转移到服务上,例如,他们可以减少购买加工食品,而在提供当地食品的餐馆消费更多。长期的经济理论表明,经济趋向于充分就业,复杂价值链中复杂商品的需求损失可以随着时间的推移重新分配——美国就已经趋向于服务业。然而,如果经济学家观察到存在一个“长期停滞”时期——永久性的需求降低和就业减少——那么,在经济上就会成为问题。100上述安德鲁·福特、麦克格·罗兹和安·哈弗·斯蒂文斯及其同事有关工人及其所在地区受到持久不利影响的研究,倾向于支持制造业生产力与创新联盟关于制造业延伸范围广阔的结论,也支持对其严重性的担忧。

近几十年来,由于前文所论述的一系列固化经济理念让我们相信,制造业的下滑已经被经济中的其他收益所抵消,所以美国并没有认真地对待制造业。101国家失去制造业就业主要是由于生产率上升;生产经济自然会被服务经济取代;低工资、低成本的生产者不可避免地取代成本较高的生产者;不要担心失去商品生产,国家会保持生产高价值先进技术的领先地位;自由贸易的好处总是超过任何短期的不利影响;创新与生产不同,即使生产分布在全球范围,创新能力依然存在。不幸的是,这些结论没有一个被证明是正确的。下一章我们将深入探讨经济学如何处理制造业,包括把我们推向这条道路的主流经济学的发展。

这里有一个潜藏的社会瓦解故事。制造业在过去是受过高中教育的男性——尤其是白人男性——达到中等收入水平的主要方式。然而,对于白人男性高中毕业生来说,1996年至2014年间人均收入下降了9%。102相比之下,大学毕业的男性白人的收入同期增长了22%以上。2014年,高中毕业生的年收入仅为36 787美元,而大学毕业生年收入为94 601美元。103不仅是白人男性受到影响。20世纪来自南方的散居非裔美国人在北方也主要从事制造业工作,制造业工作是他们进入中产阶级的重要途径。104随着制造业下滑,在城市生产中心摆脱贫困的重要途径也随之减少;底特律目前的空心化在很大程度上是讲述了这个故事。对于生活在美国南部的非裔美国人来说,他们主要通过纺织业和家具业等部门的工作摆脱贫困,但现在这些产业部门遭到了严重破坏。这些都是工人阶级衰落和社会不平等加剧的信号,而不是美国梦所应许的进步。105例如,美国前20%的平均收入与最低20%的平均收入之比已增长到8:1;在德国,它是4:1。106

2016年的总统选举反映出美国工人阶级已经明白自己被远远地抛在后面。最近的研究证实,传统上依赖制造业的地区的贸易崩溃,导致了总统选举的反现状投票模式和意识形态分歧的加深。107社会混乱和崩溃的威胁成为改变制造业衰退现状的另一个关键原因。

回到我们的制造创新主题,这里有一个宏观经济的故事,还有一个创新系统的故事,后者是本书的重点。根据目前对制造业的估算来判断制造业的范围和作用,美国创新体系未能将生产阶段视为该体系的重要组成部分,这是有问题的;只有通过一个更大的价值链镜头来观察制造业,才能得到真正的结果。

注释

1.Rafael Aguayo,Dr.Deming:The American Who Taught the Japanese about Quality(New York:Simon and Schuster Fireside,1991).

2.Kaoru Ishikawa,What Is Total Quality Control?The Japanese Way(Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall,1985).

3.特别是以下两本书在帮助美国工业界和政策制定者理解日本的所作所为方面发挥了作用:James P.Womack,Daniel T.Jones,and Daniel Roos,The Machine That Changed the World(New York:Free Press,1990);Michael L.Dertouzos,Richard K.Lester,Robert Solow,and the MIT Commission on Industrial Productivity,Made in America:Regaining the Productive Edge(Cambridge,MA:MIT Press,1989).

4.John F.Krafcik,Triumph of the Lean Production System,Sloan Management Review 30,no.1(1998):41-52.

5.美国对日本质量制造模式的回应,详见Kent Hughes,Building the Next American Century—The Past and Future of American Economic Competitiveness(Washington,DC:Woodrow Wilson Center Press,2005),drawn on here.

6.Ibid.,60-61.

7.Ibid.,45-49.

8.Ibid.,50-51,74-77,85.

9.Robert M.Solow,Growth Theory:An Exposition,2nd ed.(New York:Oxford University Press,2000),ix-xxvi;Robert M.Solow,Nobel Prize Lecture,December 8,1987,http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1987/solow-lecture.html/.

10.Hughes,Building the Next American Century,153-168.

11.Omnibus Foreign Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988,Pub.L.No.100 418,19 U.S.C.§2901 et seq.(1988).

12.Hughes,Building the Next American Century,137-141.

13.Ibid.,290.Gore led passage of the High Performance Computing Act of 1991,Pub.L.No.102-194,105 Stat.1594(1991),15 U.S.C.§5501(1991),to support the emerging“information superhighway.”

14.See Hughes,Building the Next American Century,170-198.Technology legislation of the period is summarized in William B.Bonvillian,The New Model Innovation Agencies:An Overview,Science and Public Policy 41,no.4(2014):429-433.

15.Larry D.Browning and Judy C.Shetler,Sematech:Saving the U.S.Semiconductor Industry(College Station:Texas A&M Press,2000).

16.本小节所讨论的“发展”以及讨论来源,详见:Bonvillian,The New Model Innovation Agencies,429-430.

17.这种对“产业政策”担忧依然根植于美国政治党派的政治中.尽管在2012—2016年间创建的制造研究所(如下文所讨论的)可以被打上这种烙印,但这些研究所是以行业为主导的且分担成本的,再加上制造业就业和工厂倒闭的危机,这些因素倾向于克服对“产业政策”担忧.2014年通过了支持制造研究所模式的两党立法.

18.这并不意味着关于制造业的研究和工作就被摒除了.例如,国家标准与技术研究院继续与生产技术行业进行合作研究,国家标准与技术研究院的制造业扩展伙伴关系项目继续向小型企业提供“精益”生产技术,国防部的“制造技术”(Mantech)项目和能源部的工业效率项目继续进行,美国国防高级研究计划局进行一系列关于生产技术和效率的研究项目.可参见Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency(DARPA),Adaptive Vehicle Make(AVM)program website,http://www.darpa.mil/program/adaptivevehicle-make.然而,这些努力缺乏中心组织,而且规模不大.

19.Dale Jorgenson,U.S.Economic Growth in the Information Age,Issues in Science and Technology 18,no.1(Fall 2001),http://www.issues.org/18.1/jorgenson.html.

20.Data derived from World Bank,Historical GDP—GDP(current U.S.$)(U.S.and Japan totals for 1990 and 2005),http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=US;http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=JP.

21.The dimensions of U.S.“industrial policy”are discussed in in Glenn R.Fong,Breaking New Ground or Breaking the Rules—Strategic Reorientation in US Industrial Policy,International Security 25,no.2(Fall 2000):152-162;Glenn R.Fong,ARPA Does Windows:The Defense Underpinning of the PC Revolution,Business and Politics 3,no.3(2001):213-237.

22.Glenn R.Fong,Follower at the Frontier:International Competition and Japanese Industrial Policy,International Studies Quarterly 42,no.2(1998):339-366.

23.China Passes U.S.as Largest Manufacturer,Wall Street Journal,March 14,2011,http://247wallst.com/2011/03/14/china-passes-the-us-as-largestmanufacturer/(citing IHSGlobal Insight report).

24.This section is drawn from William B.Bonvillian,Reinventing American Manu-facturing,Innovations 7,no.3(2012):101-104.

25.Barry C.Lynn,End of the Line(New York:Doubleday,2005),1-18.

26.Robert D.Atkinson,Enough Is Enough:Confronting Chinese Innovation Mercantilism,report(Washington,DC:Information Technology and Innovation Foundation[ITIF],February 2012),http://www2.itif.org/2012-enough-enough-chinese-mercantilism.pdf;Adams Nager,Calling Out Chinese Mercantilism,International Economy,Spring 2016,62-64,http://www.international-economy.com/TIE_Sp16_Nager.pdf.这些手段包括货币操纵、贿赂、强制技术转让、工业补贴、强制合资要求、外国采购的控制、歧视性标准、弱专利保护和知识产权窃取.另见IP theft,Michael Riley and Ashlee Vance,It's Not Paranoia if They're Stealing Your Secrets,Bloomberg Business Week,March 19,2012,76-84.Compare Edward S.Steinfeld,Playing Our Game:Why China's Rise Doesn't Threaten the West(Oxford:Oxford University Press,2010),230-234,with Carl J.Dahlman,The World under Pressure:How China and India Are Influencing the Global Economy and Environment(Stanford,CA.:Stanford University Press,2012),182-205.

27.Dahlman,The World under Pressure.

28.Paul A.Samuelson,Where Ricardo and Mill Rebut and Confirm Arguments of Mainstream Economists Supporting Globalization,Journal of Economic Perspectives 18,no.3(Summer 2004):135-137,144-145.http://www.nd.edu/~druccio/Samuelson.pdf.正如下一章将探讨的那样,这项工作建立在他早期的斯托尔珀萨缪尔森定理上.其中有两种产品和两种生产要素——资本和劳动力——专业化尚不完整.由于对国际贸易绝对开放,两个因素中更加稀缺的那个必然更糟糕.See Wolfgang Stolper and Paul A.Samuelson,Protection and Real Wages,Review of Economic Studies 9(1941):58-73.

29.David Autor,David Dorn,and Gordon Hanson,The China Syndrome:Local Labor Market Effects of Import Competition in the United States(MIT Economics paper,August 2011),http://economics.mit.edu/files/6613.

30.David Autor,David Dorn,and Gordon Hanson,The China Shock:Learning from Labor Market Adjustment to Large Changes in Trade,NBER Working Paper 21906,National Bureau of Economic Research,Cambridge,MA,January 2016,http://www.nber.org/papers/w21906.

31.Andrew Foote,Michel Grosz,and Ann Huff Stevens,Locate Your Nearest Exit:Mass Layoffs and Local Labor Market Response,NBER Working Paper 21618,National Bureau of Economic Research,Cambridge,MA,October 2015,http://www.nber.org/papers/w21618.

32.Danny Yagan,The Enduring Employment Impact of Your Great Recession Location,working paper,University of California—Berkeley,April 2016,https://sites.google.com/site/dannyyagan/greatdivergence.

33.A.Michael Spence,The Impact of Globalization on Income and Employment:The Downside of Integrating Markets,Foreign Affairs 90,no.4(July-August 2011):28-41,http://www.viet-studies.info/kinhte/MichaelSpence_Globalization_Unemployment.pdf.

34.Dan Meckstroth,China Has a Dominant Share of World Manufacturing,MAPI paper,Manufacturers Association for Productivity and Investment(MAPI)Foundation,Washington,DC,January 2014,https://www.mapi.net/blog/2014/01/china-has-dominant-share-world-manufacturing.

35.Ibid.,citing estimates in the United Nations National Accounts Main Aggregates Database,based on the international classification of manufacturing(ISIC D),http://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/resQuery.asp.

36.Ernie Preeg,Farewell Report on U.S.Trade in Manufactures(Washington,DC:Manufacturers Association for Productivity and Investment[MAPI]Foundation,August 15,2016),https://www.mapi.net/forecasts-data/myfarewell-report-us-trade-manufactures.

37.Jonas Nahm and Edward Steinfeld,Scale-Up Nation:Chinese Specialization in Innovative Manufacturing(MIT working paper,March 12,2012),4-5,later published in Jonas Nahm and Edward S.Steinfeld,Scale-Up Nation:China's Specialization in Innovative Manufacturing,World Development 54(2013):288-300,http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.09.003;Daniel Breznitz and Michael Murphree,Run of the Red Queen:Government,Innovation,Globalization and Economic Growth in China(New Haven,CT:Yale University Press,2011).

38.Nahm and Steinfeld,Scale-Up Nation,World Development,289-300.

39.Nahm and Steinfeld,Scale-Up Nation,MIT paper,10-19.

40.Catherine L.Mann,Globalization of IT Services and White Collar Jobs,International Economics Policy Briefs PB03-11(Institute for International Economics,December 2003),http://www.iie.com/publications/pb/pb03-11.pdf.

41.Gary Pisano and Willy Shih,Restoring American Competitiveness,Harvard Business Review,July-August 2009,114-125,http://hbr.org/hbr-main/resources/pdfs/comm/fmglobal/restoring-american-competitiveness.pdf.

42.Census Bureau,Foreign Trade Statistics,Trade in Goods with Advanced Technology Products,2015,https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c0007.html#2015.

43.Clayton Christensen,The Innovator's Dilemma(Cambridge,MA:Harvard Business School Press,1997).

44.Nahm and Steinfeld,Scale-Up Nation,MIT paper,4-5.

45.The authors gratefully acknowledge that concepts and material first published in Bonvillian,Reinventing American Manufacturing,is drawn on in the following sections.(www.daowen.com)

46.Bureau of Labor Statistics(BLS),Current Labor Statistics(CES)(Manufacturing Employment),http://data.bls.ces.See the detailed review of manufacturing job loss in Robert D.Atkinson,Luke A.Stewart,Scott M.Andes,and Stephen Ezell,Worse than the Great Depression:What the Experts Are Missing about American Manufacturing Decline(Washington,DC:Information Technology and Innovation Foundation,March 2012),4-19,http://www2.itif.org/2012-american-manufacturing-decline.pdf.

47.Robert E.Scott,Manufacturing Job Loss:Trade Not Productivity Is the Culprit,report,Economic Policy Institute,August 11,2015,http://www.epi.org/publication/manufacturing-job-loss-trade-not-productivity-is-the-culprit/(citing BLS data).

48.BLS,CES(Manufacturing Employment).

49.Atkinson et al.,Worse than the Great Depression,47;Bureau of Economic Analysis(BEA),Fixed Assets Accounts Tables,Investment in Private Fixed Assets by Industry,Table 3.7ESI,revised Sept.7,2016,https://www.bea.gov/iTable/iTable.cfm?ReqID=10&step=1#reqid=10&step=3&isuri=1&1003=138&1004=2000&1005=2010&1006=a&1011=0&1010=x.

50.Ibid.See analysis in Atkinson et al.,Worse than the Great Depression,47-58.

51.Luke A.Stewart and Robert D.Atkinson,Restoring America's Lagging Investment in Capital Goods(Washington,DC:Information Technology and Innovation Foundation[ITIF],October 2013),1,http://www2.itif.org/2013-restoring-americas-lagging-investment.pdf.

52.Bureau of Labor Statistics(BLS),Databases,Tables & Calculators,Quarterly Census,Manufacturing Establishments 2001-2015,http://data.bls.gov/pdq/SurveyOutputServlet.

53.China Passes U.S.as Largest Manufacturer,Wall St.Journal,March 14,2011.

54.Scott,Manufacturing Job Loss.

55.Ibid.

56.Atkinson et al.,Worse than the Great Depression,30-42.

57.Susan Houseman,Christopher Kurz,Paul Lengermann,and Benjamin Mandel,Offshoring Bias in U.S.Manufacturing,Journal of Economic Perspectives 25,no.2(2011):111-132,http://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.25.2.111;Susan Helper,Timothy Krueger,and Howard Wial,Why Does Manufacturing Matter?Which Manufacturing Matters?(paper,Metropolitan Policy Program,Brookings Institution,Washington,DC,February 2012),7,http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Files/rc/papers/2012/0222_manufacturing_helper_krueger_wial/0222_manufacturing_helper_krueger_wial.pdf;Michael Mandel,How Much of the Productivity Surge of 2007-2009 Was Real,Mandel on Innovation and Growth(blog),March 28,2011,http://innovationandgrowth.wordpress.com/2011/03/28/how-much-of-the-productivity-surge-of-2007-2009-wasreal/.

58.Atkinson et al.,Worse than the Great Depression,Table 26 at 29,citing BEA data;BEA,Economic Industry Accounts,Percent Changes in Chain-Type Quantity for Value Added by Industry 2008-2013,Table E.1,July 2014(and prior year tables),https://www.bea.gov/scb/pdf/2014/07%20July/Dpages/0714dpg_e.pdf.

59.Suzanne Berger and the MIT Task Force on Production and Innovation,Making in America(Cambridge,MA:MIT Press,2013),28-33.

60.BLS,Labor Productivity and Costs,Productivity Change in the Manufacturing Sector,http://www.bls.gov/lpc/prodybar.htm;Scott,Manufacturing Job Loss.See also Atkinson et al.,Worse Than the Great Depression,39.

61.Atkinson et al.,Worse than the Great Depression,42(adjusted from BLS data).

62.Scott,Manufacturing Job Loss;Atkinson et al.,Worse than the Great Depression,39;A.Stettner,J.Yudken,and M.McCormack,Why Manufacturing Jobs Are Worth Saving,Century Foundation,June 2017,1-2.

63.Helper,Krueger,and Wial,Why Does Manufacturing Matter?,9-10.Compare Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee,Race against the Machine(Lexington,MA:Digital Frontier,2011).

64.Adams B.Nager and Robert D.Atkinson,ITIF,The Myth of America's Manufacturing Renaissance:The Real State of U.S.Manufacturing(Washington,DC:Information Technology and Innovation Foundation[ITIF],January 2015),2-3,http://www2.itif.org/2015-myth-americanmanufacturing-renaissance.pdf.

65.DG Trade Statistics,World Trade in Goods,Services,FDI,January 2016,http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2013/may/tradoc_151348.pdf.

66.BEA,Foreign Trade,Exports,Imports and Balance of Goods by Selected NAICS-Based Product Code,Exhibit 1in FT-900 Supplement for 12/15,February 5,2016,https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/Press-Release/2015pr/12/ft900.pdf.

67.BEA,Trade in Goods with Advanced Technology Products,2015,Exhibit 16,https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c0007.html.

68.BEA,U.S.International Trade in Goods and Services,Exhibit 1,February 5,2016,https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/Press-Release/2015pr/12/ft900.pdf.

69.Global Macro Monitor,chart,U.S.Employment in Manufacturing,using BLS data,https://www.creditwritedowns.com/2012/05/chart-of-the-dayus-manufacturing-unemployment-1960-2012.html.Nonfarm payrolls in manufacturing peaked in 1979 at 22%,stabilized around the 17%level in the 1980s and 1990s,and then sharply declined in the following decade to 9%in 2012.

70.Federal Reserve Bank of St.Louis,Economic Research,Trade Weighted U.S.Dollar Index:Major Currencies,updated May 9,2016,https://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/DTWEXM.

71.Compare Willem Butler and Ebrahim Rahbari,The“Strong Dollar”Policy of the U.S.:Alice in Wonderland Semantics vs.Economic Reality,Vox,CEPR Economic Policy Portal,July 28,2011,http://voxeu.org/article/strong-dollar-policy-us.

72.World Bank,data,Household Final Consumption Expenditure(%of GDP),table,http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.PETC.ZS.

73.Michael Hennigan,Germany's Record Trade Surplus in 2015,finfacts,February 10,2016(citing Statistisches Bundesamt,Wiesbaden,2015),http://www.finfacts.ie/Irish_finance_news/articleDetail.php?Germany-srecord-trade-surplus-in-2015-US-UK-France-in-deficit-520.See also,Statisti sches Bundesamt(Destatis),Foreign Trade,Ranking of Germany's trading partners in foreign trade—2016,Wiesbaden,April 12,2016,https://www.destatis.de/EN/FactsFigures/NationalEconomyEnvironment/Foreign Trade/Tables/OrderRankGermany TradingPartners.pdf?_blob=publicationFile.

74.Robert D.Atkinson,The Past and Future of America's Economy—Long Waves of Innovation That Power Cycles of Growth(Cheltenham:Edward Elgar,2004),3-40.For a general discussion,see Carlota Perez,Technological Revolutions and Financial Capital:The Dynamics of Bubbles and Golden Ages(Cheltenham:Edward Elgar,2002),3-46.The quality manufacturing wave,discussed later,was led in the 1970s to 1980s by Japan.

75.Vernon W.Ruttan,Is War Necessary for Economic Growth?Military Procurement and Technology Development(New York:Oxford University Press,2006).

76.Suzanne Berger,How We Compete:What Companies around the World Are Doing to Make It in Today's Global Economy(New York:Doubleday Currency,2006),251-277.

77.Jessica R.Nicholson and Ryan Noonan,What Is Made in America?(Washington,DC:Department of Commerce,Economics and Statistics Administration(ESA),2014),http://www.esa.doc.gov/sites/default/files/whatismadeinamerica_0.pdf.

78.Ibid.

79.Susan Helper and Timothy Kruger,Supply Chains and Equitable Growth,report(Washington,DC:Washington Center for Equitable Growth,September 2016),12-14,http://cdn.equitablegrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/30134051/092816-supply-chains.pdf.

80.National Science Board(NSB),Science and Technology Indicators 2016(Washington,DC:National Science Foundation,January 2016),chap.4,R&D:National Trends And International Comparisons,Highlights,https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2016/nsb20161/#/report/chapter-4/highlights.

81.Ibid.,chap.4,Highlights.According to this report,the largest global science and technology(S&T)major gains occurred in the“Asia-10”—China,India,Indonesia,Japan,Malaysia,Philippines,Singapore,South Korea,Taiwan,and Thailand—as those countries integrated S&T into economic growth.Between 2003 and 2013,the U.S.share of global research and development(R&D)dropped from 35%to 27%,whereas it grew from 27%to 40%in the Asian(East,Southeast,and South Asia)region during the same time.

82.Gregory Tassey,Rationales and Mechanisms for Revitalizing US Manufacturing R&D Strategies,Journal of Technology Transfer 35,no.3(June 2010):297,http://hbr.org/hbr-main/resources/pdfs/comm/fmglobal/restoring-american-competitiveness.pdf.

83.National Science Foundation/National Science Board,Science and Technology Indicators 2016,Figure 4.3,http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2016/nsb20161/#/downloads/chapter-4.

84.National Science Board(NSB),Science and Engineering Indicators 2016,Table 4-7,Funds spend for business R&D performed in the U.S.:2008-2013(Washington,DC:National Science Board Jan.2016),https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2016/nsb20161/#/report/chapter-4/u-s-business-r-d.

85.Tassey,Rationales and Mechanisms for Revitalizing U.S.Manufacturing.

86.William B.Bonvillian and Charles Weiss,Technological Innovation in Legacy Sectors(New York:Oxford University Press,2015),206-217.See also Dan Breznitz,Why Germany Dominates the U.S.in Innovation,Harvard Business Review,May 27,2014,https://hbr.org/2014/05/why-germanydominates-the-u-s-in-innovation/;Dan Breznitz and Peter Cowhey,America's Two Systems of Innovation:Recommendations for Policy Changes to Support Innovation,Production and Job Creation,report(San Diego,CA:Connect Innovation Institute,February 2012).

87.BLS,CES(Manufacturing Employment);President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology(PCAST),Advanced Manufacturing Partnership,Capturing Domestic Competitive Advantage in Manufacturing,AMP report(Washington,DC:White House,May 2012),26;Small Business Administration(SBA),Frequently Asked Questions About Small Business,Small Businesses Comprise What Share of the U.S.Economy(SBA Sept.2012).https://www.sba.gov/sites/default/files/FAQ_Sept_2012.pdf;International Trade Administration(ITA),Trading Companies,One third of goods trade(by value)came from SMEs,http://www.trade.gov/mas/ian/build/groups/public/@tg_ian/documents/webcontent/tg_ian_005369.pdf.

88.Federal Reserve Bank of St.Louis,Economic Research,Manufacturing as a Percentage of GDP,Q3 2015,citing BEA data,https://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/VAPGDPMA.

89.BEA,Value Added by Industry,Manufacturing Sector(2014 data),http://www.bea.gov/iTable/iTable.cfm?ReqID=51&step=1#reqid=51&step=51&isuri=1&5114=a&5102=1.

90.BLS,Industries at a Glance,Manufacturing,NACIS 31-33,Workforce Statistics,March 2016,http://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/iag31-33.htm#workforce.

91.Helper,Krueger,and Wial,Why Does Manufacturing Matter?,4-5.

92.Solow,Growth Theory;Solow,Nobel Prize Lecture.

93.Tassey,Rationales and Mechanisms for Revitalizing US Manufacturing R&D Strategies,290.

94.Mark Muro,Sid Kulkarni,Jacob Whiton,and David Hart,America's Advanced Industries:New Trends(Washington,DC:Brookings Institution,September 2016),4.

95.Ibid.,5-6.

96.Ibid.,4,7.

97.Dan Meckstroth,The Manufacturing Value Chain Is Bigger Than You Think,report(Washington,DC:MAPI Foundation,February 16,2016),1-2,https://www.mapi.net/forecasts-data/manufacturing-value-chain-muchbigger-you-think.

98.The Bureau of Economic Analysis defines“value added of an industry,also referred to as gross domestic product(GDP)-by-industry,”as“the contribution of a private industry...to overall GDP.The components of value added consist of compensation of employees,taxes on production and imports less subsidies,and gross operating surplus.Value added equals the difference between an industry's gross out-put(consisting of sales or receipts and other operating income,commodity taxes,and inventory change)and the cost of its intermediate inputs(including energy,raw materials,semifinished goods,and services that are purchased from all sources).”BEA,Frequently Asked Questions,What Is Industry Value Added,March 2006,https://www.bea.gov/faq/index.cfm?.faq_id=184.

99.Meckstroth,The Value Added Chain Is Bigger Than You Think,11,13.

100.Insights shared by Susan Helper,Carleton Professor of Economics,Case Western Reserve University,communication of April 15,2016.

101.The authors gratefully acknowledge that concepts and material first published in William B.Bonvillian,Donald Trump's Voters and the Decline of American Manufacturing,Issues in Science and Technology 32,no.4(Summer 2016):31,is drawn from here.

102.Jon Coder and Gordon Green,Comparing Earnings of White Males by Education,for Selected Age Cohorts,High School vs College Graduates(Annapolis,MD:Sentier Research,October 2016),1,charts 1 and 2 at 7.http://www.sentierresearch.com/StatBriefs/Sentier_Income_Trends_WorkingClassWages_1996to2014_Brief_10_05_16.pdf(based on Census Bureau data).

103.Ibid.,1.

104.Nelson D.Schwartz,Small Factories Emerge as a Weapon in the Fight against Poverty,New York Times,October 28,2016.

105.Stettner et al.,Why Manufacturing Jobs,2.Michael Handel notes that the first decade of the twenty-first century was not the first time a U.S.manufacturing decline resulted in working-class inequality effects;the rise in Japan's manufacturing sector and the recession of the 1980s had similar effects.See Michael J.Handel,Northeastern University,Presentation on Skills,Job Creation and Labour Market,Conference on Smart Industry:Enabling the Next Production Revolution,OECD and Sweden Ministry of Enterprise and Innovation,Stockholm,September 18,2016.

106.A.Michael Spence,The Impact of Globalization on Income and Employment:The Downside of Integrating Markets,Foreign Affairs 90,no.4(July-August 2011):40.

107.Bradford Jensen,Dennis Quinn,and Stephen Weymouth,Winners and Losers in International Trade:The Effects on U.S.Presidential Voting(paper,Georgetown University,Washington,DC,June 10,2016)(portions of the analysis conducted for the Census Bureau),http://cmepr.gmu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/jqw_trade_voting.pdf;David Autor,David Dorn,Gordon Hanson,and Kaveh Majlesi,Importing Political Polarization?The Electoral Consequences of Rising Trade Exposure,NBER Working Paper 22637,National Bureau of Economic Research,Cambridge,MA,September 2016,http://www.nber.org/papers/w22637.

【注释】

[1]亚历山大·汉密尔顿(Alexander Hamilton),美国的开国元勋和宪法起草人之一,美国的第一任财政部长——译者注。

[2]指2007年12月至2009年6月的美国房地产泡沫破裂。——译者注

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