我国《民法典》第四百九十条规定,“当事人采用合同书形式订立合同的,自当事人均签名、盖章或者按指印时合同成立。”各国法律大都明确规定订立合同的当事人必须具备缔约能力,包括自然人或法人,都有特定的条件和要求。但由于各个国家的政治制度、经济基础、文化习惯、宗教信仰各不相同,在合同缔约能力方面规定不一。
以自然人缔约能力为例,主要在于公民享有行为能力的年龄设定、公民精神状态及某些行为能力主体范围的限定。尽管各国立法都承认自然人达到一定年龄即为有完全行为能力的成年人,但具体年龄差异很大。《民法典》规定,“十八周岁以上的自然人为成年人。不满十八周岁的自然人为未成年人。成年人为完全民事行为能力人,可以独立实施民事法律行为。十六周岁以上的未成年人,以自己的劳动收入为主要生活来源的,视为完全民事行为能力人。”
以法人缔约能力为例,我国《民法典》第五十七和五十八条规定,“法人是具有民事权利能力和民事行为能力,依法独立享有民事权利和承担民事义务的组织。法人应当依法成立,应当有自己的名称、组织机构、住所、财产或者经费。”
依照法律或法人章程的规定,代表法人从事民事活动的负责人,是法人的法定代表人。法定代表人以法人名义从事的民事活动,其法律后果由法人承受。法人章程或者法人权力机构对法定代表人代表权的限制,不得对抗善意相对人。实践中,对于合同相对人来说,他通常只认为法定代表人就是代表法人,一般并不知道也没有义务知道法定代表人的权限到底有哪些。从以往的司法实践看,由于对大量法定代表人或者其他组织的负责人超越权限订立合同作无效处理,严重损害了合同相对人的利益,甚至助长了一些法人和组织刻意借此逃避责任,谋求非法利益。因此,我国《民法典》第五百零四条规定,“法人的法定代表人,或者非法人组织的负责人超越权限订立的合同,除相对人知道或者应当知道其超越权限外,该代表行为有效,订立的合同对法人或者非法人组织发生效力。”这样就保护了合同相对人的利益。
在大型成套机电设备进出口或对外工程承包业务中,某国家(政府)或某国际组织作为合同当事人签订合同屡见不鲜,比如非洲某国家为进口机电设备而向我国境内金融机构申请出口买方信贷[1]。国家(政府)是否具备合同缔约能力?一般来讲,国家的行为可以分为公法行为和私法行为。就私法行为而言,国家可同自然人、法人以及其他国家或国际组织进行交易。但国家毕竟不是一般的买卖关系的主体,国家作为主权者,享有国家主权豁免[2],属于特殊主体。他们与不享有豁免权的当事人进行经济活动时法律地位往往不平等,这就引发了其在合同中是否享有豁免权的争执。学术界通常有两种倾向,一种是绝对主义倾向,即无论国家从事的是公法行为还是私法行为,除非该国放弃豁免,都给予豁免,也称绝对豁免;另一种是相对主义倾向,主张国家在从事公法行为时享有豁免权,而在从事国际货物买卖等私法行为时不能享有豁免权。因此,与此类合同当事人订立合约前,根据合同适用的法律,最好通过具有相应资质的律师进行法律尽调并出具法律意见书,明确合同当事人的缔约能力及是否放弃主权豁免等事宜,确保交易无重大法律风险或已采取切实有效的法律风险规避措施。
【案例分析】
非洲M国与我国承包商签订某电站项目EPC合同[3],并通过M国经济计划部与我国金融机构申请出口买方信贷。其中,贷款协议的借款人的措辞为“Country M represented by Ministry of Economy Planning of the Country M as Borrower”。国内金融机构聘请专业律师进行法律尽调,确认M国经济计划部确有缔约能力,能够代表M国政府缔约,M国放弃主权豁免。具体律师意见书内容如下:(www.daowen.com)
1.The Borrower is the Government of Country M represented by Ministry of Economy Planning of the Country M,which is duly established and validly existing under the laws of the Country M and has power,authority and legal right to assume civil liabilities with its assets.
2.The Borrower has full power,authority and legal right to enter into,deliver and perform its obligations under the Loan Agreement and has taken all necessary action to authorize the execution,delivery and performance of the the Loan Agreement and the Ministry of Economy Planning of the Borrower has duly been authorized and has power to execute,deliver and perform the Loan Agreement on behalf of the Borrower.
3.The execution,delivery and performance of the Loan Agreement by the Borrower do not violate or conflict with or result in a breach of any law,decree,regulation official statement ordinance or similar enactment of the Country M,any decision or judgment of any court or other tribunal or regulatory authority or any applicable arbitral award of,or in the Country M or any applicable treaty to which the Country M is a party.
4.All authorizations and consents of any authority in the Country M required in connection with the execution,delivery and performance of the Loan Agreement by the Borrower and the legality,validity and enforceability of the Loan Agreement have been obtained and are in full force and effect,including making payments in foreign currencies,remitting such payments out of the Country M and making the Loan Agreement admissible in evidence in the courts of the Country M.
5.The execution,delivery and performance of the Loan Agreement by the Borrower constitute commercial acts,and the Borrower and its property and assets do not have any right of immunity in connection with any proceedings or any enforcement of an arbitral award or court decision or the execution and attachment on its property and assets located outside the territory of the Country M on the grounds of sovereignty or otherwise is valid and irrevocably binding on the Borrower.
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