1. Trade barrier
Trade barriers are government-induced restrictions on international trade. The barriers usually can be divided into Tariffs and Non-tariff barriers to trade. Non-tariff barriers to trade include following forms:
Import licenses
Export licenses
Import quotas
Subsidies
Voluntary Export Restraints
Local content requirements
Embargo
Currency devaluation
Trade restriction
Whatever its form, a trade barrier is designed to make foreign products more expensive than domestic products and, as a result, protect domestic industries. If two or more nations repeatedly use trade barriers against each other, then a trade conflict, or trade war results.
贸易壁垒（Trade Barriers） 又称贸易障碍。对国外商品劳务交换所设置的人为限制，主要是指一国对外国商品劳务进口所实行的各种限制措施。一般分非关税壁垒和关税壁垒两类。
所谓关税壁垒，是指进出口商品经过一国关境时，由政府所设置海关向进出口商征收关税所形成的一种贸易障碍。非关税壁垒是指除关税以外的一切限制进口措施所形成的贸易障碍。
实践中较为常见的贸易壁垒主要体现在以下几个方面：
（1）违反承诺的关税措施；
（2）缺乏规则依据的进口管理限制（包括通关限制、国内税费、进口禁令、进口许可等）；
（3）缺乏科学依据的技术法规、产品标准、合格评定程序、卫生与植物卫生措施；
（5）政府采购中违反有关规则限制进口产品的做法；出口限制；补贴；
（6）服务贸易准入和经营限制；
（7）不合理的与贸易有关的知识产权措施；
2. CISG
The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods （CISG;the Vienna Convention） is a treaty which is a uniform international sales law. As of May 2016, it has been ratified by 85 states that account for a significant proportion of world trade,making it one of the most successful international uniform laws.
The CISG was developed by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law（UNCITRAL）, and was signed in Vienna in 1980. It came into force as a multilateral treaty on 1 January 1988, after being ratified by 11 countries.
China entered into CISG in 1981. Nowadays, CISG is generally regarded as the most important and prevailing law applied to international trade contracts.
《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》（CISG）是由联合国国际贸易法委员会主持制定的，1980年在维也纳举行的外交会议上获得通过。公约于1988年1月1日正式生效。
1986年12月11日中国交存核准书，在提交核准书时，提出了两项保留意见：
1．不同意扩大《公约》的适用范围，只同意《公约》适用于缔约国的当事人之间签订的合同。
2．不同意用书面以外的其他形式订立、修改和终止合同。
3．Incoterms 2010
The Incoterms rules or International Commercial Terms are a series of pre-defined commercial terms published by the International Chamber of Commerce （ICC）. They are widely used in International commercial transactions or procurement processes. A series of three-letter trade terms related to common contractual sales practices, the Incoterms rules are intended primarily to clearly communicate the tasks, costs, and risks associated with the transportation and delivery of goods.(www.daowen.com)
The Incoterms rules are accepted by governments, legal authorities, and traders worldwide for the interpretation of most commonly used terms in international trade. They are intended to reduce or remove altogether uncertainties arising from different interpretation of the rules in different countries. As such they are regularly incorporated into sales contracts worldwide.
First published in 1936, the Incoterms rules have been periodically updated, with the eighth version—Incoterms 2010—having been published on January 1, 2011.
In the prior version, the rules were divided into four categories, but the 11 pre-defined terms of Incoterms 2010 are subdivided into two categories based only on method of delivery.The larger group of seven rules may be used regardless of the method of transport, with the smaller group of four being applicable only to sales that solely involve transportation by water where the condition of the goods can be verified at the point of loading on board ship. They are therefore not to be used for containerized freight, other combined transport methods, or for transport by road, air or rail.
Rules for any mode of transport:
EXW - Ex Works （named place of delivery）
FCA - Free Carrier （named place of delivery）
CPT - Carriage Paid To （named place of destination）
CIP - Carriage and Insurance Paid to （named place of destination）
DAT - Delivered At Terminal （named terminal at port or place of destination）
DAP - Delivered At Place （named place of destination）
DDP - Delivered Duty Paid （named place of destination）
Rules for sea and inland waterway transport:
FAS - Free Alongside Ship （named port of shipment）
FOB - Free on Board （NINGBO）
CFR - Cost and Freight （named port of destination）
CIF - Cost, Insurance & Freight （named port of destination）
Incoterms是国际贸易术语解释通则。它来自于International Commercial Terms,全称为 International Rules for the Interpretation of Trade Terms. 它的宗旨是为普遍使用中的国际贸易术语提供一套解释的国际规则，以避免或减少各国不同解释而出现的不确定性。
最新Incoterms 2010版本，即《2010年国际贸易术语解释通则》（以下简称《2010通则》）共有11种贸易术语，按照所适用的运输方式划分为两大类：
第一组：适用于任何运输方式的术语七种：
EXW（ex works） 工厂交货
FCA（free carrier） 货交承运人
CPT（carriage paid to） 运费付至
CIP（carriage and insurance paid to） 运费与保险费付至
DAT（delivered at terminal） 运输终端交货
DAP（delivered at place） 目的地交货
DDP（delivered duty paid） 完税后交货
第二组：适用于水上运输方式的术语四种：
FAS（free alongside ship） 装运港船边交货
FOB（free on board） 装运港船上交货
CFR（cost and freight） 成本加运费
CIF（cost insurance and freight） 成本、保险费加运费
免责声明：以上内容源自网络，版权归原作者所有，如有侵犯您的原创版权请告知，我们将尽快删除相关内容。
